Buddhist Empirical Realism of War and Armed Conflict

The article is inspired by Dr. Elizabeth J. Harris's study "Buddhist Empirical Realism and the Conduct of Armed Conflict," which appeared in the 2021 issue of Contemporary Buddhism: An Interdisciplinary Journal.

Siddhartha Gautama Buddha provided guidance on a variety of topics, including governance and the ideal household, but his teachings were not abstract philosophies disconnected from their social and political contexts.

Instead, they were grounded in his observations and critical understanding of Indian society, illustrated through real-life examples and principles honored by effective educators throughout history.

This contextual relevance is why Ajahn Jayasaro, in his 2013 book "Within and Without," describes Buddhism as an educational system rather than merely a philosophy.

Wars and conflicts have been part of human society since its inception. While the methods of conflict have evolved, the repercussions remain the same.

I once believed that civilization and modernization would resolve many issues, particularly armed conflicts. Despite the creation of numerous international organizations aimed at resolving these conflicts, the situation has not improved; in fact, it has worsened.

But who suffers the most from these conflicts, who initiates them, and why do they occur?

No club, society, or organization seems equipped to solve these issues. If they were, the ongoing situation in Palestine, with its high death toll and religiously motivated support, would not persist. Where people belittle the deaths only because they are from the Muslim community. This suggests a deep-seated problem with the mindsets and ideologies we hold.

The Sutta Pitaka in the Pali texts is characterized by empirical realism, addressing the harsh realities of conflict and their underlying causes. For example, the Cakkavatti-sihanada Sutta and the Maha-dukkha-kkhanda Sutta illustrate this realism, while the Maha-nidana Sutta applies Buddhist causation theories to societal disruptions.

Buddhism offers not just compliance with humanitarian law but also an analytical model for understanding why some conflicts resist these principles.

The Pali Canon emphasizes empirical realism, focusing on observation and experience rather than theory alone. The Maha-dukkha Kkhanda (The Great Discourse on the Mass Suffering) in the Majjhima Nikaya provides a graphic depiction of conflict, war, and torture.

Buddha responds to a question about the dangers of sensual pleasures by examining the fears and quarrels arising from attachment to possessions, paralleling modern conflicts over religion, power, and wealth.

Again, with sensual pleasures as the cause … men take swords and shields and buckle on bows and quiver, and they charge into battle massed in double array with arrows and spears flying and swords flashing; and there they are wounded by arrows and spears, and their heads are cut off by swords, whereby they incur death or deadly suffering … (M.I.86)

Buddha's conversation with Ananda in the Maha-Nidana Sutta (The Great Discourse on Origination) offers a detailed account of dependent origination (paticca-samuppada).

Buddha explains that wars are driven by desires for land, wealth, status, and power. As long as this tangible materialistic things are important to humans and when we develop a craving (tanha) and clinginess to hold it without understanding the impermanence (anitya) there will be more wars, arguments, abuse, lying, and disputs that will not think twice before ending entire families or even communities

And so, Ānanda [the Buddha’s closest monastic companion], feeling conditions craving, craving conditions seeking, seeking conditions acquisition, acquisition conditions decision-making, decision-making conditions lustful desire, lustful desire conditions attachment, attachment conditions appropriation, appropriation conditions avarice, avarice conditions guarding of possessions, and because of the guarding of possessions there arise the taking up of the stick and sword, quarrels, disputes, arguments, strife, abuse, lying and other evil unskilled states. (D.II.58–59)

The Cakkavatti-Sihanada Sutta (The Lion's Roar on the Turning of the Wheel) presents a vivid illustration of the causes of violence. In this Sutta, Buddha narrates a mythological story that explores the consequences when a monarch (or leader) neglects one of his key responsibilities: abolishing poverty. Buddha identifies poverty as the root cause of societal evils, emphasizing the interconnectedness of social systems. According to Buddha, when a monarch fails to alleviate poverty, it sets off a chain reaction of social ills and conflicts.

Buddha's analogy explains that if a ruler neglects to provide for the needy, poverty increases, leading to theft among the impoverished. Initially, the monarch may respond by distributing property to the thieves, but without addressing the broader issue of deprivation, this act inadvertently encourages more theft. As stealing becomes rampant, the ruler may resort to harsh punishments, such as decapitation, to deter the crime.

However, this only escalates the violence, with people emulating the monarch's brutality to secure what they want. This escalation leads to class divisions, declining morality, and widespread distrust, ultimately plunging society into violent anarchy.

The myth underscores that although the monarch attempted a humanitarian approach, his failure to address the root causes and conditions of poverty resulted in long-term social unrest. Only when some members of society chose a different path did humanitarian values begin to resurface, suggesting that true resolution requires recognizing and addressing the underlying issues.

Similarly, wars and conflicts often arise from the state's failure to ensure that everyone can live properly, with adequate shelter and security.

Neither Buddha nor his followers distanced themselves from the reality of conflict in their surroundings.

Buddhism offers a profound and incisive analysis of not only the causes of conflicts but also the dynamics that sustain them.

In what ways can Buddhism be linked to present-day warfare and armed hostilities?

Evidently, warfare has persisted throughout human history, including during the time of Buddha. Moreover, it is evident that Buddha's teachings were not confined to abstract theoretical musings on human behavior and conflict; rather, they offered practical guidance rooted in realism and centered on the foundational principles of causation.

Despite this, modern Buddhist scholars have the ability to innovate, crafting new metaphors and illustrations that connect with individuals amid the most violent circumstances, all while staying true to the core teachings of Buddhism. Consequently, even amidst contemporary warfare, Buddhism can serve as a source of refuge.

What characteristics are evident in a doctrinal framework where realism is integrated within Buddhism?

To form a model based on Buddhist principles, we must identify the root causes of conflicts.

Every conflict, whether fueled by religion, territorial disputes, or economic interests, stems from an underlying cause that requires universal identification. The prevailing craving for individualism, self-interest, and group-centric thinking (I and Me) exacerbates egotism.

It is imperative to understand that no crime is ever justified. While individuals may express differing opinions on specific conflicts, it is essential for us, as rational beings, not to dismiss their perspectives by shifting focus elsewhere.

The principles of "Karuna" (compassion) and "Metta" (loving-kindness) play a crucial role in fostering empathy and allowing us to empathize with others' experiences.

The mind is humanity's most potent tool. By cultivating mindfulness and adopting the correct mindset (Samma Sati), we ensure that our actions are ethically sound and our concentration is directed towards righteous endeavors.

The cornerstone of this model lies in the teachings that highlight the tendency of unenlightened minds to perceive realities through constructs influenced by what Buddhism terms as "asava" — manifestations of corruption, taints, cankers, or intoxicating inclinations, along with defilements known as "kilesa." These teachings underscore the challenge of purging the mind of these influences.

There are four āsavas: sense desire (kāmāsava); the desire for existence, usually interpreted as eternal existence for the self (bhavāsava); wrong views (diṭṭhāsava); and ignorance (avijjāsava).

There are 10 kilesa: greed (lobha); hate (dosa); delusion (moha); conceit (māna); fixed and speculative views (diṭṭhi); doubt (vicikicchā); mental laziness (thīna); restlessness (uddhacca); shamelessness (ahirika); and lack of concern for consequences (anottappa).

The first three of the latter are separately listed in the Pali texts as poisons or unwholesome roots (mūla).

Once these factors are eradicated from society, it will become a conducive environment for a fulfilling and harmonious life.

The full article on BUDDHIST EMPIRICAL REALISM AND THE CONDUCT OF ARMED CONFLICT by Dr. Elizabeth J Harris can be found through this link: https://doi.org/10.1080/14639947.2022.2038025